Positions of Blacks in the Civil War and Emancipation Essay

â€Å"Once let the black man get upon his person the brass letters, U.S., let him get an eagle on his button, and a musket on his shoulder and bullets in his pockets, and there is no power on earth which can deny that he has earned the right to citizenship in the United States. The quote mentioned above was proclaimed by African American abolitionist Frederick Douglass, and served as motivation for African Americans to enlist in the Union’s Army efforts and take an initiative in their future. With President Abraham Lincolns issue of his Preliminary draft of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1862, the Civil War developed to be a war to ultimately save the union and to abolish slavery. Blacks overall played a substantial part in the victory of†¦show more content†¦The Republican Party prepared an anti-slavery proposal but Lincoln had no true intention of interfering with slavery as a whole and believed slavery was a state issue and every state should control its own loy alties to it. But as far as expansion, â€Å"Lincoln was ready to negotiate on every aspect of slavery except the idea of permitting expansion of slavery to new territory†, 1 and many southerners felt that there was no longer a place for them in the Union. In December of 1860, South Carolina became the first state to seceded from the union and create their own country. â€Å"In six months, ten more states would secede from the Union (Mississippi, Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Texas, North Carolina, Virginia, and Arkansas)† 2 and February 9th of 1861, utterly marked the organization of the unions counterpart, the Confederate States of America, commanded by Jefferson Davis who served as the president. During this time African Americans served as an underlying issue to the civil war but personally there seemed to be little apprehension about their actual development and progression in society. Initially, Negroes’ attitudes and contributions to the Civil War and their desire for freedom were major factors in their struggle with white America. Obviously, there were various circumstances that described African American lifestyles; being broken down to North vs. South or Freed slaves vs. Slaves, but the mainShow MoreRelatedBenefits Of The Black Union Army1481 Words   |  6 PagesBenefits of the Black Union Army-Did Blacks Receive Equal Treatment? Introduction The black union army is a term commonly used to refer to the black men of African American origin who were mostly recruited into the American army as a consequence of the civil war between the northern and southern states. This war came to an end with the surrender of the nonfederal forces in 1865, after a fierce battle that had started three years prior with the firing on Fort Sumter. As a result racial of discriminationRead MoreIn What Way the African Americans Shaped the Course and Consequences of the Civil War? Confine Your Answer to the Years from 1861 and 1870.1038 Words   |  5 PagesIn what way the African Americans shaped the course and consequences of the Civil War? Confine your answer to the years from 1861 and 1870. Immediately after the election and inauguration of Abraham Lincoln, the newly-established Republican Party’s presidential nominee, eleven states of the South seceded from the Union. These events marked the beginning of the Civil War and the war was a result of many political tensions that had emerged between the North and the South in the prior decades, allRead MoreEconomic Anxiety And The Issue With Emancipation Essay1706 Words   |  7 PagesEconomic Anxiety and the Issue with Emancipation Newspapers circulated within Franklin County operated as the perfect forum for the abundance of motivations and ideas when it came to race relations leading up to the civil war. Economic, religious, and political justifications for slavery dominated much of the newspapers discussion, arriving from a wide array of viewpoints and sources. Franklin county’s newspaper before the civil war served as a forum of discussion for the quickly changing everydayRead MoreFrederick Douglass : An Unfortunate Time1697 Words   |  7 Pagesaround him. After years of physical and psychological abuse, Douglass escaped from his owner, however it was not until the third time he actually succeeded. He was only successful because he wore a seaman uniform and carried the free papers of that black man. This lead him to New York, where he stayed with abolitionist David Ruggles. After attending abolitionist meetings, Douglass wrote his autobiography, Narrative of the life of Frederick Douglass, which wa s the best selling novel at in 1845. DouglassRead MoreThe Emancipation Proclamation And Its Consequences1688 Words   |  7 PagesThe Emancipation Proclamation And Its Consequences During his election campaign and throughout the early years of the Civil War, Lincoln vehemently denied the rumour that he would mount an attack on slavery. At the outbreak of fighting, he pledged to restore the Union, but accept slavery where it existed , with Congress supporting his position via the Crittendon-Johnson Resolutions. However, during 1862 Lincoln was persuaded for a number of reasons that Negro emancipation as a war measureRead MoreAbraham Lincolns Accomplishments During his Presidency Essays532 Words   |  3 PagesNot only is he one of the most prominent leaders of the Civil War but an early influence and catalyst on the later Civil Rights Movement. Abe Lincoln accomplished many things during the civil war. Abe Lincoln was a great leader and president. He ended slavery in the U.S. during his time period. During the year 1860, slavery was one of the biggest problems in america. Abe Lincoln, president at the time, was against slavery. During the civil war Abe was referred to as â€Å"The Great Emancipator† (NationalRead MoreThe Great Emancipator By President Abraham Lincoln947 Words   |  4 Pagesoffice, President Abraham Lincoln led the country through the Civil War, he is most known as being responsible for the abolishing of slavery through the Emancipation Proclamation, thus giving him the nickname of â€Å"The Great Emancipator.† Technically speaking, the Emancipation Declaration did not actually abolish slavery in itself, rather it led to the 13th Amendment, which did end slavery in January of 1865. 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In the early 19th century there were several forces that opposed slavery, both in the North and the South, they usedRead MoreThe Great Emancipator : Abraham Lincoln894 Words   |  4 Pagescountry through one of the worst wars in the history of America, he is most known for abolishing slavery through the Emancipation Proclamation, thus giving him the nickname of â€Å"The Great Emancipator.† There are a great amount of debates on whether Lincoln was worthy of this title, one reason being that the Emancipation Declaration was limited and did not abolish slavery, the 13th Amendment abolished slavery, which would come later in January of 1865. As the Civil War was going on, Lincoln needed toRead MoreWho Freed the Slaves871 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿Who Freed the Slaves The long standing question of â€Å"who freed the slaves† has been under debate since the conclusion of the Civil War. One side of the argument takes the more obvious claim that emancipation came at the hand of the great Abraham Lincoln. The other side of the argument claims that the Slaves themselves attained their freedom. Both sides have been heavily researched and strongly supported with many facts. Do we give credit to one person for generating the political backing and

The Psychology behind Bullying in Adolescents Essay

Bullying by definition is a form of aggressive behavior in which someone intentionally and repeatedly causes another person injury or discomfort. Bullying can take the form of physical contact, words or more subtle actions. [Why] Bullying has grown new outlets over the last decade. With social media outlets and text messaging added to the game, bullying is not just about getting tormented face to face anymore. Cyber bullying can include sending out mean or threatening emails and instant messages about a person, spreading rumors about someone and also include photos that a person would consider to be humiliating. [Chamberlin] Bullying can have many outlets. The most common form of bullying is still face to face confrontation. But†¦show more content†¦Another possibility is implied that a person may resort to bullying due to issues in their own home which are unhealthy. Maybe a lack of love, kindness, or attention causes a person to lash out at others as an outlet for their pain. A need for attention could be a contributor to this type of negative behavior. Perhaps a person acts out via bullying because it gets them noticed as opposed to being civil or polite. A person may act out due to failure towards academic achievement or some other goal that the bully may find value in. [Why] A bully may act as such when in certain situations where value is not placed on how people treat one another. When people fail to address a bully’s behavior as inappropriate, this manner continues and often progresses negatively over time. When someone attempts to imagine how a bully views their actions, one may wonder if the bully feels guilt or remorse over their actions. Leon Festinger, a social psychologist, suggested a theory. This theory is called cognitive dissonance. [Robertson] This theory suggests that humans are very inclined to be consistent in all areas of our life. Therefore, when a bully begins Elizondo Page 5 attacking a victim, they continue this pattern justifying their actions as they go. The bully convinces himself that they are not a bad person, so therefore the person being bullied must deserve this treatment. The person tells themselves that theyShow MoreRelatedCyber Bullying: A Study of Long Term Effects on Adolescent Cyber Bullying1561 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction: Cyber bullying is a topic that has been researched many times. As technology changes, it is important that research is kept up to date on how victimization can affect present and future psychosocial adjustment issues. Cyber bullying is defined as victimization that intends to harm another through electronic means, where individuals can harm without physical interaction. (Tokunaga, 2010). Cyber bullying requires little planning and there is little chance of being caught. It is importantRead MoreCan Witnessing or Experiencing Domestic Violence Be Linked to Bullying in Adolescents?1632 Words   |  7 Pageschildren have committed suicide because they can’t take the hurt of a bully any longer. It is so sad to think about and I cannot put into words how my heart weeps for those people! It’s sickening for me to even think about. But to understand the people behind these instances we have to look at what each of these things are. According to Richard L Davis, â€Å"Under the US statutory law concerning domestic violence, it is generally defined as child, sibling, dating, intimate partner, spousal or elder abuseRead MoreEfforts to Fight Cyber Bullying1182 Words   |  5 Pagescommit suicide and live lifestyles that are indulged in depression. Cyber bullying is a fairly new type of violence and this is why it is so hard to counter. One of the most prominent forms of counter-cyber bullying that the United States implements is through legislations, which have resulted in mixed results. Psychologist and Sociologist agree that the negative reinforcement approach doesn’t really teach the adolescents the affects that it has on the victims and why it is wrong (Kanazawa). TheRead More The Dangers of Social Media Essay908 Words   |  4 Pageshaven behind a computer screen. Here, they feel that they can be whoever they want to be and say whatever they want to say. While this can have some benefits, the cons outweigh the pros. It is no coincidence that in the last five decades, suicide rates have increased by 60% around the world (World Health Organization). It is likely that technology and social media have influenced this number, especially just within the last 10 years. Bullying is a major cause of suicide. Often times, bullying can beRead MoreThe Long Term Effects of Bullying Among Teenagers769 Words   |  3 Pagesother career field, when it comes to finding the reasoning behind an issue and or a prevention and intervention plan for major issues, such as bullying, that are affecting individuals and the society, it is important that theoretical frameworks are used. According to the 2010 statistics, with bullying becoming a rapidly growing issue and concern affecting both youth and adults, the crime of bullying will not be going away anytime soon. Bullying is performed in several different forms ranging from physicallyRead MoreThe Relationship Between Bullying And Peer Relationship1596 Words   |  7 PagesThe Relationship Between Bullying and Peer Relationship In Middle Childhood Bullying is an unfortunate issue that many children face every day. When people think about bullying many imagine something like this; one child yelling at another to get his or her attention. Also, another scenario would be a child being bullied for their lunch or lunch money. However, today’s bullying issues have become much more severe. Unfortunately, today’s bullying antics could easily lead to physical and psychologicalRead MoreAsperger Syndrome : A Neurological Disorder Associated With Autism1341 Words   |  6 Pagesvictims of bullying. Asperger syndrome:In criminal law, assault may refer to a verbal threat of violence, whereas battery refers to the actual violence. Most jurisdictions in the United States define assault as an attempt to cause, or actually causing, bodily injury. Some states expand this definition to include an attempt to menace someone by putting a person in fear of imminent injury. Assault is also defined as unwanted physical contact or unwanted sexual advances. Bullying: In generalRead MoreThe Effects of Bullying on Childhood Development 906 Words   |  4 PagesBullying is everywhere; it takes place in the home, office, cyberspace and schools; bullying is especially common in schools. Schools are supposed to be a haven for children to learn and build educational and social skills. However, the ill effects of bullying are disrupting children’s education, social skills, and lives. According to a youth risk and behavior survey (2011), approximately 20% of students in grades nine through twelve have been bullied (Heintz 1). Bullying was once thought as aRead MoreBullying And School System Are No Secret Essay1502 Words   |  7 PagesHannah Swan EdSE 620 Research paper 9/25/16 Bullying and Aggression in Schools Bullying and aggressive behavior in the school system are no secret. Many people have encountered a bully, or have been a bully at some point in their lives. 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Role of Information System in HRM

Question: Discuss about the Role of Information System in HRM. Answer: Introduction Human resources management simply refers to the management of people in organizations. It entails the activities, practices, and policies that all link up to retaining the appropriate number of employees to accomplish the organizations objectives. The three main HRM activities that exist in any business function include; acquiring, maintaining and developing human resources The aim of HRM in any organization is to manage employees input to obtain optimal productivity and effectiveness. Moreover, with the changing business environment globally, Human resource managers will need to be aware that change in technology will not only have an impact on how they manage talent acquisition but also on the productivity of the organization (Shiri, 2012). Human Resource Information System (HRIS) HRIS can be described as an integrated system use to gather, analyze and store information regarding an organizations human resources. In other words, HRIS is a point of intersection between HRM and Information technology. This system allows human resource managers to acquire, store analyze and distribute information in an efficient and friendly manner (Shiri,2012) Relationship Between HRM and HRIS Looking at the literature above, it is evident that HRIS serves as a database that makes it possible to store manage, manipulate, deliver and present data for human resources. As a result, an efficient HRIS must allow for the integration and assimilation of HR policies and procedures with an organizations computer hardware and software applications. For instance, a manufacturing company is planning to run a promotion of their products. The HRM team can, therefore, work on promotion strategy whereby the promotion expenditure is not to exceed 6 percent of the salary. This can be easy for a company where HRIS has been integrated into their system. Only they would need it to program this strategy into the system and thus errors could be flagged within the system when they occur (Enfield, et al, 2011) An integrated HRIS contains a database that can be shared by all human resource functions. This means all human resource activities that form the human resource management can be managed from a central point. Kaplan and Norton (2013) note that integration of information systems into the HRM has simplified the task of going through large amounts of data, especially by the talent acquisition team. The advancement and use of information system have also impacted on payroll processing, and records keeping as firms have moved from manual book keeping to use of databases that can archive large volumes of data which can be retrieved at greater ease. Use of Information Systems in HRM has transformed how this organizations approach issues to deal with employees retention and acquisition, business processes and productivity. Amy (2010), notes that the concept of Human Resource Management System is a powerful tool that organizations can adopt to manipulate the performance and behavior of employees to achieve business success. Moreover there has been a paradigm shift from the use of HRM as a tool to lead the organization to achieve competitive advantage to a body that controls the operations of the entire organization. As a result, the introduction of Information system into HRM has been welcomed by local and international organizations. For instance, a global company like Coca-cola has fully integrated information system into its HRM processes, and this had led to greater productivity and ease of operation in its different chains across the globe (Goulden, 2011). Due to this paradigm shift, Sameni Khoshalhan (2006) note that Human resource processes should be tailored in such a way that they are in harmony with the organization's strategic objectives. Also, this strategy should be focused on creating a strategic IT plan that will eventually translate into an appropriate HRIS strategic plan that would push the organization to greater productivity. Application of HRIS Information system has its footprints in almost every branch of HRM. Examples of some of the major areas where it is being used in human resource include; Electronic employee profile; This is a web application that provides a centralized database where all employee information come be retrieved and archived for future use. Managing of employee profile usually lies with the manager, the employee and the human resource team. Electronic recruitment; This is an online recruitment tool that helps the human resource acquire talents with ease and friendly manner. These web-based tools allow organizations to attract a stronger and diverse pool of applicants. Today many organizations have shifted their focus to the internet to search for candidates to join their team. This is because the internet offers a wide pool to both employers and those looking for jobs due to the existence of many recruiting websites at their disposal (Herman, Shalaby Bundgen, 2010). Electronic learning; E- learning is a powerful tool that has to enable employers to train and empower their employees in the easiest way possible. This tool comes with virtual classrooms, computer-based learning and other learning materials that make learning interactive. One major advantage to E-learning to the organization is that it reduces the cost of training employees considerably. It also increases employee flexibility due to the existence of virtual classroom thus staff can be trained from an offsite location. The tool also offers better tracking and management of staff training (Hedman Henningsson,2011). Conclusion. In summary, HRIS is a modern method of implementing human resource strategies and policies through the use of IT and web-based technology An analysis of the above literature reveals that Human resource information system is not just a tool used my Human resource managers to make their work easier, but this is an advanced business solution that provides futures solutions to todays HRM challenges. This is because of its ability to provide real-time support in the management of all organizational activities and information needed to manage Human Resource in these organizations. It is an efficient and user-friendly tool which makes it accessible to different users within the organization. Also, integration of HRIS is the best way to go for modern companies since it covers all tenets of HRM like administration, personnel, training, education, talent acquisition and career development of employees. References Amy, L. (2010). Improving your organization with the integrity HR audit. Retrieved from:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WhWDWgy27M0Enfield J., Myers R. D., Lara M. and Frick T. W. (2011). Innovations diffusion: Assessment of strategies within then diffusion and simulation game. Simulation and gaming, 20 (10), 1-27. Goulden, B. (2011). Managing human capital in the ICT sector in Africa challenges and solutions .Retrieved from:https://pygmaconsulting.com/Managing%20Human%20Capital%203-11%20elec.pdf Hedman J. Henningsson S. (2011). Three strategies for green IT. IT Professionals: IEEEcomputer society, 13(1), 54-57. Herman H., Shalaby B. R., Bundgen R. (2010). The greeing of Business.Frankfurt: Am Main:International GmgH. Kaplan, R. S., Norton, D. P. (2008). Execution premium.Harvard Business PressSameni M. K. Khoshalhan F. . (July 2006). Analysis of Human Resource Development for Information Technology and E-Commerce in Iran. Technology Management for the Global Future (pp. (3) 1186-1202). IEEE: PICMET 2006 (ISBN: 1-890843-14-8) Shiri, S.(2012) Strategic Role of HR Audit in Organizational Effectiveness. Journal ofManagement Public Policy Vol. 3, No. 2, June 2012,pp. 39-45ISSN (Print): 0976-013X ISSN (Online): 0976-0148. Shiri, S.(2012) Effectiveness of Human Resource Information System on HR Functions of theOrganization A Cross Sectional Study. US-China Education Review A 9 (2012) 830-839

Research Paper on The Evolution of Sexuality Essay Example

Research Paper on The Evolution of Sexuality Essay Introduction There are certain contentious topics in society – such as such as religion, politics, violence, and sexuality – which have always been at the center of a heated debate. They become even more contentious when represented artistically. There is a widespread notion that art should give rise to strong emotions in the observer; in other words, art should shock and provoke. While there is no universal agreement among artists and critics on this issue, perhaps majority of them would subscribe to the above statement. There is a famous saying by Vladimir Mayakovsky, a prominent Russian futurist, that art is not a mirror to reflect the world, but a hammer with which to shape it. The views on acceptability of sexuality in art have changed many times in human history. Sexuality and nudity have been talked about as anything from assault on public morality to the apogee of high culture (Smith, 1997). The topic of sexuality is intimately interconnected with a host of other socially significant issues, such as procreation, relations between a man and a woman, and, ultimately, gendered power. Therefore, changes in attitudes to artistic representation of sexuality merit scholarly attention. This research paper will explore these changes as they took place in visual art throughout history. Early Representations of Sexuality Exploring early representations of sexuality in pictorial art makes sense within two different traditions, namely the ancient (or classical) and Christian tradition. As Doran (2008) informs, â€Å"our primary sources for nudity in public art have been Greco-Roman mythology and Judeo-Christian traditions† (para. 1). Before looking into these two traditions, however, it is necessary to clarify the definition of the subject matter of this paper. Where to draw the line between nakedness and nudity has been the preoccupation of artists and critics for centuries, since it served as the basis for classification of art as high (and therefore acceptable, adored, and valued) or pornographic. We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on The Evolution of Sexuality specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on The Evolution of Sexuality specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on The Evolution of Sexuality specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Nakedness, i.e. absence of clothes on the figure that is being represented, can border on vulgarity; this is the case when an individual body is depicted. Indecent pictures of naked bodies which are meant for sexual arousal – the basic definition of pornography – always imply imagining a particular body, a body with which sexual intercourse is possible. On the other hand, nudity, as defined in classic art, is a portrayal of abstract, ideal human form, hence the widespread usage of transparent drapes, or draperie mouillee, which were added â€Å"to offset the form and contours of the figure† (Smith, 1997, p. 4). Another technique artists used to distinguish their work from pornography was to place a naked body in an appropriately general context: models were portrayed posing for the artist in his studio, which was deemed to be a desexualized activity serving the higher purpose of art. Depiction of naked or semi-naked figures was only acceptable â€Å"if the body was transformed into a formalized and generalized sign: the nude† (Smith, 1997, p. 7). Ancient Tradition Starting with the ancient tradition, it is necessary to note that public nudity was accepted in Greece whenever practical and appropriate, for instance, during dancing, working, or exercising, and this fact has found its reflection in the art of those times. As Papalas (cited in Goodson, 1991) notes, archaeologists have found many vases portraying naked performers at festivals and laborers in the fields. Moreover, ancient Greeks believed that humans should strive towards becoming God-like both in terms of physical and intellectual development, therefore they valued artistic portrayals of healthy and well-trained bodies, whether nude or not. The term â€Å"heroic nudity† was coined to refer to representations of naked semi-gods and heroes in sculpture and pictorial art. However, Hurwit (2007) argues that heroic nudity was only one among many approaches to portraying the naked in ancient Greece: there was also a nudity of differentiation, a nudity of youth, â€Å"democratic nud ity,† a nudity of status or class, and a nudity of vulnerability and defeat (pathetic nudity). Hurwit (2007) came to this conclusion after analyzing Dexileos stele, set above a cenotaph or heroon built for a young horseman killed in the Corinthian War, which depicts defeated enemy as naked, while the horseman has his clothing on. However, it is not always the case in the classical tradition that vanquished enemy is portrayed naked as a symbol of his impotency. Vernon (2001) draws attention to the fact that St. Sebastian, the Roman martyr shot with arrows, â€Å"is depicted without clothes to show his perfection in death – even at the risk of his image appearing homoerotic† (para. 7). Christian Tradition of Sexuality Christian art also deserves a close look in terms of prevalence of sexual themes and messages. However, deciphering those messages requires an in-depth knowledge of Christian theology and history of religion. This paper will only discuss several theories and examples of the nude in Christian visual art. For instance, Steinberg (1997) argues that deliberate exposure of baby Christ’s genitalia on numerous icons is an affirmation of the Lord’s son kinship with the human condition. Moreover, surrounding figures on many paintings attract the viewer’s attention to genitalia of Jesus by implicitly or explicitly pointing at them. As for artistic representations of Christ in adulthood, an important change has occurred in the 13th century under the influence of different theories of the original sin. Before those times, the prevailing mindset was that Adam and Eve were sexless at the beginning and endowed with procreative organs only after they sinned. Consequently, they became ashamed of their genitalia and covered themselves. Since Jesus was not subject to the original sin, he was frequently portrayed as a sexless being; absence of genitalia meant he did not have anything to be ashamed of. However, St. Augustine proposed that Adam and Eve were created with procreative organs, which were removed from their conscious control after they sinned. In this context, it is interesting to analyze why many depictions of crucified Jesus show him covered with loincloth yet with a clearly visible erection. Apart from the obvious association of the phallic symbol with power, there are two alternative explanations. In the pr e-Christian mythology, a link existed between erection and resurrection, therefore Jesus’ erect phallus can be seen as a premonition of what happens three days after. Portrayals of Jesus on the crucifix having an erection were â€Å"to show the potency of the new creation that is to be found in the Christ† (Vernon, 2001, para. 7). Another explanation is linked to the conception of the original sin introduced by St. Augustine. Adult Jesus has never been painting with an erection – it only happens either in infancy or after his death. Thus, Jesus’ being in full control of his member during the mature age points to him not being subject to the original sin (Steinberg, 1997). It is not only Jesus whose disrobed body is symbolic of power and virtue rather than shame and decay: Doran (2008) argues that â€Å"from specifically Christian scriptures and traditions, we are presented with the unclothed bodies of martyrs (like St. Bartholomew) and ascetics (like St. Jerome)† (para. 4). Here, we speak of a particular kind of power – moral power stemming from purity and martyrdom rather than actual power. For centuries, â€Å"the oppressed, the tyrannized, the unjustly treated have time and again identified with, and found strength to endure/resist, in portrayals of that naked God-man on the cross† (Doran, 2008, para. 8). It is important to qualify the above statement: it applies only to depictions of naked saints and Jesus himself. When mortals are portrayed nude, the painting acquires completely different connotations, those of downfall, suffering and awareness of one’s own imperfection. As Margaret Walters (1978) notes, â€Å"in Christian art, the naked body is a symbol not of pride but of pathos. To be naked is to be vulnerable, sexually self-conscious and guilty† (p. 66). It is also interesting to note that while portrayals of naked Jesus and other male saints were widespread, there are virtually no depictions of female nudity in Christian art. As Doran (2008) reminds, â€Å"when men do show up naked in Christian imagery, they have been known to facilitate spiritual and ethical ends† (para. 8). At the same time, few and far between depictions of females figures usually are with garments on. Doran (2008) concludes that â€Å"along with representations of a fully-clothed Mary (the mother of Jesus) portrayals of naked men dominate Christian art† (para. 2). The only exception is portrayal of Virgin Mary with her breasts uncovered during feeding of Jesus. It is possible to explain tolerance towards this theme by the appropriateness of the context in which Mary’s breasts are reveled and by her desexualization and elevation from the status of a woman (and thus potentially a sexual object) to mother. Renaissance and the Victorian Era Renaissance udity was a prominent theme in Renaissance art. Since religious influence was strong during that period, artists were guided by â€Å"the belief that the human form is the crowning achievement of God in Creation – worthy of our expert knowledge, and analogous to the scientific knowledge of the human body in medicine and biology† (Gordon College, 2010, â€Å"Rationale†, para. 1). However, it necessary to emphasize that the difference between nudity and nakedness discussed earlier was very important for painters of the period. Nudity was believed to be appropriate and devoid of sexual connotations only if nakedness was a natural condition of the figures represented. As a consequence, portrayal of naked female body was usually done in the form of a goddess, most frequently Venus. Renaissance art aimed at following in the footsteps of great masters of the past, especially Greek and Roman sculptors, therefore depiction of naked body was frequent in the art of that per iod. As Haber (2003) notes, â€Å"the discovery, way back in 1506, of Laocoon, the frenetic Roman statuary, had set a challenge to High Renaissance sculpture and an inspiration to Mannerism† (â€Å"Virtue and bare flesh†, para. 1). At the same time, the views of the Church on the appropriateness of nudity in art have changed dramatically. Nakedness was no longer associated with holiness and purity bur rather with earthy temptations and prurient thoughts. A campaign to cover private parts of Gods and heroes in classical sculptures and paintings of the past with a fig leaf started after â€Å"the Roman Catholic Church’s Council of Trent ordered public works to be amended to hide nudity in the 16th century† (Gargulinski, 2010, â€Å"Art†). The choice of the fig leaf was not incidental, since according to Biblical mythology, Adam and Eve used fig leaves to cover themselves after sinning and becoming aware and ashamed of their bodies: â€Å"And the eyes of them both were opened, and they knew that they were naked; and they sewed fig leaves together and made themselves aprons† (Genesis 3:7; cited in Gargulinski, 2010, â€Å"Bible†). Initially, some Greek and Roman sculptors used fig leaves to cover genitalia of their figures, while others did not, and the Church has done it instead. Later on, some fig leaves were removed, yet it was impossible to return some paintings and sculptures their original form without damaging them. Apart from fears about possible damage to artworks, there is another controversy associated with fig leaves which are removed upon excavation along with the grime, dirt and oils that have built up over the years. As Gargulinski (2010) informs, â€Å"while this renovates the works into their originally intended condition, it is also stirring up controversy among scholars who say the fig leaves are part of the works’ histories† (â€Å"Controversy†). The Church’s crusade against nudity in art was connected to the fact that during Renaissance times, a great portion of artworks were commissioned by the Church and were meant for display in places of religious observance. Fears have arisen about presence of nudity in such places, given â€Å"not just that the faithful might be disturbed in their worship, but that certain individuals might actually recognise a beautiful angel in a fresco as that young model who lived around the corner† (Vernon, 2001, para. 2). The Victorian Age During the Victorian age, attitudes to permissibility of painting nude body were ambivalent at best. Even the most fervent defenders of morality acknowledged that human body was the perfect form which was to be represented in high art. As Smith (1997) writes, â€Å"on one hand, the nude embodied the ideal, the highest point of pictorial artist’s practice; on the other, it was viewed as an active incitement to unregulated sexual activity† (pp. 1-2). Several periods can be distinguished in the history of the Victorian England according to their attitudes to the nude: early experimentation with nudity in pictorial art lasted till the 1850s, after which a decline occurred, yet artistic interest to the naked figure resurged dramatically in the 1860s and attracted a wave of indignation from some members of the public. The resurgence occurred under the influence of French Salon painting; moreover, some artists with an interest in depicting the nude were claiming to follow in the footsteps of the Old Masters of the Renaissance period. It was roughly around that time that a link between portrayals of nudity and artistic excellence was established. Human body was regarded as one of the most sophisticated natural objects, and artists capable of rendering it in a realistic manner were thought of as able to draw or sculpt anything. It was frequently the case that painters depicted the naked figure in a way that the figure’s hands or other body parts covered genitalia. It is also necessary to note that depiction of women’s breasts was considered more acceptable in the academic art of the period than portrayal of male or female genitalia. Naked female body in general was considered more appropriate than male during the Renaissance and Victorian periods. However, many figures – especially female figures – were depicted from the back to prevent exposure. As Kenneth Clark (1972) writes his classic work The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form, â€Å"it might be argued that the back view of the female body is more satisfactory than the front† (p. 150). Nudity of children was more accepted than representations of adults without clothing. Recalling the discussion of sin and shame in the section on early representations of sexuality in religious art, it should hardly elicit surprise. Since nakedness was considered inappropriate only if associated with feelings of shame stemming from awareness of gender-specific peculiarities of one’s body, children were believed to be ignorant of potential sexual implications of their nakedness, they were still in the state of blessed innocence, and many artists felt free to depict child nudity even when they did not dare paint naked adult figures. Child nudity or desexualized nakedness of female figures was meant to point to purity and morality rather than promiscuity: the nude â€Å"offers scenes of the model in the studio, emblem of art’s cool eye in search of perfection – and hands-off respect for a woman’s virtue† (Haber, 2003, â€Å"The gloves are off†, para. 3). The fact that nudity was associated with morality in the Victorian era can be explained by one important factor, the primacy of the visual. Galleries’ attendees could only gaze at naked figures in sculpture and on canvas, while touch as another sense for experiencing human body was ruled out by the entire situation. The primacy of the visual originates from the fact that first Renaissance artists and then their Victorian followers have been inspired by classical Greek and Roman sculpture. Materials sculptors were working with, marble and rock, were discouraging touching; they were pleasing visually but repulsively cold when pressed against the body surface (Haber, 2003). As a consequence, the dissociation of art from touch was commonly accepted well into the 20th century, and therefore it allowed for greater freedom in acceptable representations of nudity. Referring back to the difference between the nude and naked, the appropriate and pornographic, it is necessary to specify that the above discussion applies only to the so-called high art, which emphasized abstract representation of the undressed figure. At the same time, there existed many pictures of less innocent character for private display and consumption during both Renaissance and Victorian era; however, they were banished from the public arena because of their provocative nature (Smith, 1997). Sexuality in Avant-Garde and Contemporary Art Modernism has challenged established conventions of academic art and broadened the conception of what is acceptable both in art and the public sphere in general. As Rimanelli (2005) informs, â€Å"it has often been asserted that Modernism begins with Manet, in particular with those paintings wherein the vexations of the unclothed female body burst forth with a power of disquietude that appalled the public: Le Dejeuner sur l’herbe (1863) and Olympia (1863)† (para. 1). Other avant-garde artistic movements that emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries were equally preoccupied with liberation of art and life from oppressive traditions and morals. Walters (1978) comments on expressionist views on naked figure in the following way: â€Å"The Expressionists often saw themselves as free spirits, getting back to nature, back to more instinctive levels of the personality. They would, by main force if necessary, break down bourgeois hypocrisy and sexual repression. And the image which proved their freedom from convention, their artistic and sexual virility, was the female nude† (p. 315). The portrayal of both female and male nude received special attention after the sexual revolution of the 1960s, when artists started to look for new ways of experiencing and expressing sexuality. One of the major developments was the tendency among female artists to paint naked figures of their own or opposite gender. For centuries, painting nude was deemed inappropriate for females, despite the fact that several talented and successful women dared paint disrobed bodies in the 19th and early 20th century (Walters, 1978). It has been mentioned before that female nudity was accepted more than male in all traditions except for the Christian one. It has also been established in the introductory section of this paper that studying representations of nudity and sexuality is important in light of their role for power relations between genders. In the decades following the 1960s, female artists often depicted naked male body provocatively and programmatically. Walters (1978) cites the examples of Anita Steckel who formed the Fight Censorship group in 1973 â€Å"protesting the double standard of museum authorities, only allowing the male nude if decently fig-leafed, while the most blatantly sexual female nude is considered permissible art† (p. 316) and Marion Pinto who called one of her exhibitions â€Å"Man as Sex Object†. Sexuality Case Studies This section will discuss two works of art which caused heated discussion about representation of sexuality in art in their respective times. Because of crossing the line between nudity and nakedness, the paintings discussed below attracted indignation from art critics and the public when they appeared. The paintings discussed in this section will be Manet’s Olympia and Courbet’s Origin of the World.It has been mentioned above that Manet’s paintings are sometimes regarded as marking the beginning of modernity, and nakedness of the artist’s models is one of the major reasons for that. Manet’s â€Å"women fail to sustain the idealisation of the nude, slipping decisively into the embarrassing (for some) terrain of the naked† (Rimanelli, 2005, para. 1). Although the source of Olympia was a classical one, i.e. Titian’s The Venus of Urbino (1538), Manet’s Olympia is distinctly modern and disturbingly naked, stripped of the academic ve neer of classical nudity. T.J. Clark (1984) writes in the chapter of his The Painting of Modern Life: Paris in the Art of Manet and His Followers titled Olympia’s Choice that â€Å"the past was travestied in Olympia: it was subject to a kind of degenerate simian imitation, in which the nude was stripped of its last feminine qualities, its fleshiness, its very humanity, and left as ‘une forme quelconque’- a rubber-covered gorilla flexing its hand above its crotch† (cited in Rimanelli, 2005, para. 2). Before modernism, nudity was considered acceptable only if depersonalized and in a number of particular contexts. Contrary to the acceptable academic nude, Manet’s Olympia â€Å"is a portrait of an individual, whose interesting but sharply characteristic body is placed exactly where one would expect to find it† (Clark, 1972, p. 164). Olympia is placed in a brothel, where viewers would expect to see naked female form in the inappropriate context of paid sex. Courbet’s Origin of the World is even more provocative: a close-up view of female genitalia, with the rest of the woman’s body out of picture, made critics of the day dismiss the painting as a brutal objectification of female figure and therefore as pornographic. The painting was originally planned to be of erotic nature, since it was commissioned by Khalil Bey, a former ambassador and negotiator of the Ottoman Empire retired to Paris, who already owned other Courbet’s works by provocative nature, such as The Turkish Bath and The Sleepers. It look several decades before the artistic and philosophical significance of the painting was acknowledged. Conclusion In Christian art, Jesus and saints were often depicted disrobed to attest that they were not subject to the original sin and therefore unaware of potential sexual implications of their nakedness. While portrayals of unclothes male figures were common, female nudity was less accepted in Christian art, except for the scenes where Virgin Mary is breast-feeding baby Jesus. The situation was reversed in the Renaissance era, when great masters paid a lot of attention to the study and portrayal of the nude. Usually, it was a male artist portraying a female model; however, an important distinction existed between academic nudity and nakedness. It was deemed appropriate to represent figures without clothes only if absence of garments was a natural condition for them, like for Greek and Roman gods and heroes, for examples. Therefore, most nude sculptures and paintings of the period represent nude female form as a goddess. Another distinction between nudity and nakedness originated from the context in which nakedness occurred. If a model was passively posing for an artist in his studio, such nudity was regarded as serving the higher purpose of art. If a naked woman was places in a brothel, like in the case with Manet’s Olympia, such a painting was deemed inappropriate by contemporaries. However, avant-garde artists used nakedness extensively to shock a nd provoke their public. A resurgence of the nude in visual art happened after the sexual revolution of the 1960s, and one of the prominent trends of the subsequent decades was portrayal of naked male body by female artists in an attempt to correct for centuries of unbalanced relations between genders. Bibliography